Published in Retina

What Ophthalmology Residents Should Know About Flame Hemorrhages

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16 min read
When you find a flame hemorrhage on exam, it can be difficult to determine its underlying etiology because there are many possibilities. Here's what to know about this type of retinal hemorrhage.
What Ophthalmology Residents Should Know About Flame Hemorrhages

What are flame hemorrhages?

Flame hemorrhages are a subset of retinal hemorrhages occurring within the retinal nerve fiber layer.1 They are related to pathologies of the superficial retinal capillary plexus,1 including hypertensive retinopathy and retinal venous occlusion.2,3
In general, hemorrhages are precipitated by breakdown of vessel walls; wall instability etiologies can include: physical pressure from trauma or surgery, increased pressure within the vessels, wall inflammation, weak connective tissue, and/or systemic coagulation pathologies.4

Flame hemorrhages on exam

On exam, flame hemorrhages are usually found in the posterior pole of the retina;4 they may be around the optic nerve in diseases such as glaucoma.2 However, they are uncommon in the periphery of the retina, unlike another form of retinal hemorrhages called “dot and blot” hemorrhages.5
Flame hemorrhages are typically red in color and elliptical or “lozenge” shaped.4 The outer rim of flame hemorrhages is not completely smooth; some parts will be serrated4 or feathery in appearance.2
Flame hemorrhages should not be confused with other retinal hemorrhages of the retinal nerve fiber layer: Roth spots and disc hemorrhages. Roth spots have a white center and their shape is rounder. Disc hemorrhages have a splinter shape that becomes narrower as its ends approach the optic disc.1

Flame hemorrhage formation pathophysiology

The more elongated, linear shape of these hemorrhages is produced by the pattern of blood movement as it infiltrates the nerve fiber layer. The blood mirrors the parallel arrangement of the axons5 of the retina in an arching pattern on both sides of the fovea in accordance with the positioning of the retinal nerve fiber bundles.6

Differential diagnosis of flame hemorrhage

When a flame hemorrhage is found on exam, it can be difficult to determine its underlying etiology because there are many possibilities. While this is not an exhaustive list, some conditions that should be kept in mind, based on current literature and case reports, are as follows:

Infectious etiologies

  • Acute bacterial endocarditis1
  • Dengue fever7
  • Hemolytic uremic syndrome8
  • Post-fever retinitis
    • Potential consequence of systemic infections such as West Nile fever, Rickettsiosis, Typhoid fever and Rubella. Researchers are not sure whether the retinitis here is infection or immune-mediated (or both).9
  • Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)10

Microvascular etiologies

  • Hypertensive retinopathy,1, including underlying issues such as:
    • malignant hypertension11
    • hypertensive emergencies12
    • pregnancy-induced hypertension13
  • Glaucoma14
  • Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage15
  • Branch retinal vein occlusions5
  • Papilledema16
  • Collagen vascular disease16

Autoimmune etiologies

  • Diabetic retinopathy17
  • Systemic sarcoidosis18
  • Lupus19
  • IRVAN (idiopathic retinal vasculitis, aneurysms, and neuroretinitis syndrome) with p-ANCA positivity20

Hematologic etiologies

  • Hematologic cancers
    • Leukemia1
    • Multiple myeloma21
  • Anemias21
    • Aplastic anemia
    • Pernicious anemia
    • Iron deficiency anemia
    • Megaloblastic anemia
    • Hemolytic anemia
  • COVID, with high D-dimer22
  • Thrombocytopenia16
  • Anoxia16
  • Coagulopathies16

Traumatic etiologies

  • Birthing-mediated traumas (e.g., instrument-assisted)23
  • Dental procedures (ie., that can lead to branch retinal artery occlusion)24
  • Coronary artery bypass graft (possible relation to ischemic optic neuropathy, for instance)25
  • Shaken baby syndrome26
  • Blunt trauma16

Miscellaneous etiologies

  • Retinopathy of prematurity27
  • After certain medications
    • One case report described flame hemorrhages in a patient after beginning fingolimod for Multiple Sclerosis28
  • Thiamine deficiency-induced Wernicke encephalopathy29
  • Radiation16

Management

Because most flame hemorrhages do not involve the fovea, they will not lead to blindness and can just be observed.1 This is particularly true if there is a single flame hemorrhage found on exam; in that case, further ocular-specific management can focus on watching for progression, signs of ischemia, and neovascularization.1
The main focus will then be on determining the basis of the flame hemorrhage. Most flame hemorrhages will typically resolve after addressing the systemic predispositions in a patient. Thus, it is critical to use an interprofessional team to assess and treat the patient.1
An important aspect of determining how to determine follow-up in patients is getting a thorough history. Discussion questions should address social history, medications, any trauma, or recent changes in vision, for example.1
After a history, a typical ophthalmic examination for evaluation of flame hemorrhages should involve: slit lamp examination, dilated fundoscopy, and intraocular pressure measurements.1
In terms of further workup to rule out any systemic conditions, referrals should be made so that the patient can have etiology-specific labs drawn. For example, patient levels of serum lipids, plasma proteins, and plasma glucose should be checked to evaluate for metabolic syndrome.1
Blood viscosity should be evaluated via measurement of hemoglobin, hematocrit, and fibrinogen. If there is a concern for an autoimmune basis to hyperviscosity, measurements of protein C, protein S, factor V leiden, homocysteine, and antithrombin III should be performed.30 Coagulation factors and M-type globulins can also be checked to evaluate for hemorrhages in the setting of multiple myeloma.31
If flame hemorrhages are suspected to be secondary to hypertension, blood urea nitrogen, workup for basic electrolyte levels, creatinine clearance, urine samples, and renal imaging is reasonable.31 In cases of retinopathy in the setting of hypertensive crises, labetalol is typically the first line for management.32
Birth trauma-induced retinal hemorrhages in newborns can be managed conservatively; they typically normalize in 2-4 weeks. However, if the patient is younger than 3 years and has retinal hemorrhages in addition to an intracranial injury, there should be high suspicion for child abuse.1

References

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  10. Igor Kozak, J. Allen McCutchan, William R. Freeman, Chapter 81 - HIV-Associated Infections, Editor(s): Stephen J. Ryan, SriniVas R. Sadda, David R. Hinton, Andrew P. Schachat, SriniVas R. Sadda, C.P. Wilkinson, Peter Wiedemann, Andrew P. Schachat,Retina (Fifth Edition), W.B. Saunders,2013,Pages 1441-1472, ISBN 9781455707379,https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-0737-9.00081-3. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781455707379000813)
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  13. Bakhda R. N. (2016). Clinical study of fundus findings in pregnancy induced hypertension. Journal of family medicine and primary care, 5(2), 424–429. https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.192364
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  15. Obuchowska, I., Turek, G., Mariak, Z., & Mariak, Z. (2014). Early Intraocular Complications of Subarachnoid Haemorrhage after Aneurysm Rupture. Neuro-ophthalmology (Aeolus Press), 38(4), 199–204. https://doi.org/10.3109/01658107.2014.911918
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  17. Nghiem, A.Z., Nderitu, P., Lukic, M., Khatun, M., Largan, R., Kortuem, K., Balaskas, K. and Sim, D. (2019), Comparing diabetic retinopathy lesions in scanning laser ophthalmoscopy and colour fundus photography. Acta Ophthalmol, 97: e1035-e1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.14106
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  19. Shrestha, R., Kharel Sitaula, R., Karki, P., Joshi, S. N., & Rawal, S. (2019). Combined Intravitreal Bevacizumab And Dexamethasone In Bilateral Lupus Retinopathy. International medical case reports journal, 12, 329–333. https://doi.org/10.2147/IMCRJ.S220499
  20. Nourinia, R., Montahai, T., Amoohashemi, N., Hassanpour, H., & Soheilian, M. (2011). Idiopathic retinal vasculitis, aneurysms and neuroretinitis syndrome associated with positive perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody. Journal of ophthalmic & vision research, 6(4), 330–333.
  21. Holt, J. M., & Gordon-Smith, E. C. (1969). Retinal abnormalities in diseases of the blood. The British journal of ophthalmology, 53(3), 145–160.
  22. Lani-Louzada, R., Ramos, C., Cordeiro, R. M., & Sadun, A. A. (2020). Retinal changes in COVID-19 hospitalized cases. PloS one, 15(12), e0243346. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243346
  23. Watts, P., Maguire, S., Kwok, T., Talabani, B., Mann, M., Wiener, J., . . . Kemp, A. (2013). Newborn retinal hemorrhages: A systematic review. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 17(1), 70-78. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2012.07.012
  24. Oğurel, T., Onaran, Z., Oğurel, R., Örnek, N., Büyüktortop Gökçınar, N., & Örnek, K. (2014). Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion following Dental Extraction. Case reports in ophthalmological medicine, 2014, 202834. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/202834
  25. Dorecka, M., Miniewicz-Kurkowska, J., Romaniuk, D., Gajdzik-Gajdecka, U., & Wójcik-Niklewska, B. (2011). Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy after conventional coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research, 17(6), CS70–CS74. https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.881798
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Katherine Loomba
About Katherine Loomba

Katherine Loomba is a third year medical student at NYITCOM. She is currently performing research on the ocular manifestations of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and Loeys-Dietz Syndrome. When Katherine first observed cataract surgery, it was love at first “sight” and she has been interested in Ophthalmology ever since! Before medical school, Katherine studied Neuroscience at Binghamton University. In her free time, she enjoys hiking and skiing.

Katherine Loomba
Alanna Nattis, DO, FAAO
About Alanna Nattis, DO, FAAO

Dr. Alanna Nattis is a cornea, cataract and refractive surgeon, as well as the Director of Clinical Research at SightMD. She is an Ophthalmology Editor for Eyes On Eyecare, and serves as an associate professor in ophthalmology and surgery at NYIT-College of Osteopathic Medicine. She completed a prestigious Ophthalmology residency at New York Medical College and gained vast experience with ophthalmic pathology in her training at both Westchester County Medical Center and Metropolitan Hospital Center in Manhattan.

Following her residency, she was chosen to be a cornea/refractive surgical fellow by one of the most sought after sub-specialty ophthalmic fellowships in the country, training with world-renowned eye surgeons Dr. Henry Perry and Dr. Eric Donnenfeld. During residency and fellowship, Dr. Nattis published over 15 articles in peer-reviewed journals, wrote 2 book chapters in ophthalmic textbooks, and has co-authored a landmark Ophthalmology textbook describing every type of eye surgical procedure performed, designed to help guide and teach surgical techniques to Ophthalmology residents and fellows. Additionally, she has been chosen to present over 20 research papers and posters at several national Ophthalmology conferences. In addition to her academic accomplishments, she is an expert in femtosecond laser cataract surgery, corneal refractive surgery including LASIK, PRK, laser resurfacing of the cornea, corneal crosslinking for keratoconus, corneal transplantation, and diagnosing and treating unusual corneal pathology. Dr. Nattis believes that communication and the physician-patient relationship are key when treating patients.

Alanna Nattis, DO, FAAO
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